NEW GLYCAEMIC TARGETS- TIME TO LOOK BEYOND HBA1C: A REVIEW
Keywords:
HbA1c, Blood glucose level determination, Diabetes, Hyperglycemia
Abstract
Diabetes is a condition defined by elevations in glucose. Historically, glucose measured in the fasting state or glucose measured two hours after a carbohydrate challenge (oral glucose tolerance test) have been the standard measures used to diagnose diabetes. Apart from this the researchers also reported various other shortcomings of measurement of blood glycemic value by HbA1c. A1C is a poor indicator of what occurs in the postprandial state. A1C captures only chronic hyperglycemia. Developed societies in which diabetes diagnosis is made with A1C and less developed societies (between and within countries) in which diabetes diagnosis is made with plasma glucose: such a division should be avoided. It would add to the inequities in health and health care. The objective of this article is to elaborate the uses of some nontraditional markers of hyperglycemia like 1. Fructosamine 2. Glycated albumin 3. 1,5-anhydroglucitol 4. Continuous glucose monitoring to be taken into consideration for estimation of blood glucose level as an alternative for HbA1c level determination.
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References
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5. Yoo E-H, Lee S-Y, Yoo E-H, Lee S-Y. Glucose Biosensors: An Overview of Use in Clinical Practice. Sensors. 2010;10(5):4558-4576. doi:10.3390/s100504558
6. Makris K, Spanou L. Is there a relationship between mean blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin? J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2011;5(6):1572- 1583. doi:10.1177/193229681100500634
7. Gabbay KH, Hasty K, Breslow JL, Ellison RC, Bunn HF, Gallop PM. Glycosylated Hemoglobins and LongTerm Blood Glucose Control in Diabetes Mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1977;44(5):859-864. doi:10.1210/jcem-44-5-859
8. Radin MS. Pitfalls in hemoglobin A1c measurement: when results may be misleading. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29(2):388-394. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2595-x
9. Lorenzo-Medina M, De-La-Iglesia S, Ropero P, Nogueira-Salgueiro P, Santana-Benitez J. Effects of hemoglobin variants on hemoglobin a1c values measured using a highperformance liquid chromatography method. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2014;8(6):1168-1176. doi:10.1177/1932296814538774
10. León-Triana O, Calvo GF, BelmonteBeitia J, et al. Labile hemoglobin as a glycaemic biomarker for patient-specific monitoring of diabetes: a mathematical modeling approach. J R Soc Interface. 2018;15(142). doi:10.1098/rsif.2018.0224
11. Sherwani SI, Khan HA, Ekhzaimy A, Masood A, Sakharkar MK. Significance of HbA1c Test in Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diabetic Patients. Biomark Insights. 2016;11:95. doi:10.4137/BMI.S38440
12. Bonora E, Tuomilehto J. The pros and cons of diagnosing diabetes with A1C. Diabetes Care. 2011;34 Suppl 2(Supplement 2):S184-90. doi:10.2337/dc11-s216
13. Bonora E, Tuomilehto J. The pros and cons of diagnosing diabetes with A1C. Diabetes Care. 2011;34 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):S184-90. doi:10.2337/dc11-s216
14. Ketema EB, Kibret KT. Correlation of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose with HbA1c in assessing glycemic control; systematic review and metaanalysis. Arch Public Heal. 2015;73:43. doi:10.1186/S13690-015-0088-6
15. American Diabetes Association AD. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2009;32 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S62-7. doi:10.2337/dc09-S062
16. Hu Y, Liu W, Chen Y, et al. Combined use of fasting plasma glucose and glycated hemoglobin A1c in the screening of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Acta Diabetol. 2010;47(3):231-236. doi:10.1007/s00592-009-0143-2
17. Cohen RM, Haggerty S, Herman WH. HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes and prediabetes: is it time for a mid-course correction? J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2010;95(12):5203-5206. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2352
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19. Kim DL, Kim SD, Kim SK, Park S, Song KH. Is an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Still Valid for Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus? Diabetes Metab J. 2016;40(2):118-128.
doi:10.4093/dmj.2016.40.2.118
20. Maynard JD, Rohrscheib M, Way JF, Nguyen CM, Ediger MN. Noninvasive Type 2 Diabetes Screening: Superior sensitivity to fasting plasma glucose and A1C. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(5):1120-1124. doi:10.2337/dc06-2377
21. Nakagami T, Qiao Q, Tuomilehto J, et al. The fasting plasma glucose cut-point predicting a diabetic 2-h OGTT glucose level depends on the phenotype. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2002;55(1):35-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11755477. Accessed May 28, 2019.
22. Martín-Timón I, Sevillano-Collantes C, Segura-Galindo A, Del Cañizo-Gómez FJ. Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease: Have all risk factors the same
strength? World J Diabetes. 2014;5(4):444-470. doi:10.4239/wjd.v5.i4.444
23. Cheng YJ, Gregg EW, Geiss LS, et al. Association of A1C and fasting plasma glucose levels with diabetic retinopathy prevalence in the U.S. population: Implications for diabetes diagnostic thresholds. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(11):2027-2032. doi:10.2337/dc09-0440
24. American Diabetes Association AD. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2013;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S67-74. doi:10.2337/dc13-S067
25. Weykamp C, John WG, Mosca A. A review of the challenge in measuring hemoglobin A1c. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2009;3(3):439-445. doi:10.1177/193229680900300306
26. Little RR, Rohlfing CL. HbA 1c Standardization: Background, Progress and Current Issues. Lab Med. 2009;40(6):368-373. doi:10.1309/LM3DUSEIBXHTVZ70
27. López-de-Andrés A, Perez-Farinos N, de Miguel-Díez J, et al. Type 2 diabetes and postoperative pneumonia: An observational, population-based study
using the Spanish Hospital Discharge Database, 2001-2015. Patman S, ed. PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0211230. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211230
28. McCormack S, Grant SFA. Genetics of obesity and type 2 diabetes in African Americans. J Obes. 2013;2013:396416. doi:10.1155/2013/396416
29. Davidson MB. Diagnosing diabetes with glucose criteria: worshiping a false God. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):524-526. doi:10.2337/dc10-1689
30. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) for the diagnosis of diabetes. 2011. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304271/. Accessed May 28, 2019.
31. Malik J, Masoodi S, Shoib S. Obstructive sleep apnea in Type 2 diabetes and impact of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on glycemic control. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2017;21(1):106. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.196005
32. Coustan DR. Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy. Glob Libr Women’s Med. 2009. doi:10.3843/GLOWM.10162
33. Osei K, Rhinesmith S, Gaillard T, Schuster D. Is Glycosylated Hemoglobin A1c a Surrogate for Metabolic Syndrome in Nondiabetic, First-Degree Relatives of AfricanAmerican Patients with Type 2 Diabetes? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(10):4596-4601. doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030686
34. Ghazanfari Z, Haghdoost AA, Alizadeh SM, Atapour J, Zolala F. A Comparison of HbA1c and Fasting Blood Sugar Tests in General Population. Int J Prev Med. 2010;1(3):187-194. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21566790. Accessed May 28, 2019.
35. McMillin JM. Blood Glucose. Butterworths; 1990. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21250092. Accessed May 28, 2019.
36. Dagogo-Jack S, ed. Diabetes Mellitus in Developing Countries and Underserved Communities. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41559-8
37. Si D, Bailie R, Wang Z, Weeramanthri T. Comparison of diabetes management in five countries for general and indigenous populations: an internetbased review. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:169. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-169
38. Welsh KJ, Kirkman MS, Sacks DB. Role of Glycated Proteins in the Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes: Research Gaps and Future Directions. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(8):1299-1306. doi:10.2337/dc15-2727
39. Danese E, Montagnana M, Nouvenne A, Lippi G. Advantages and pitfalls of fructosamine and glycated albumin in the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes.
J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2015;9(2):169-176. doi:10.1177/1932296814567227
40. Lee J-E. Alternative biomarkers for assessing glycemic control in diabetes: fructosamine, glycated albumin, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2015;20(2):74-78. doi:10.6065/apem.2015.20.2.74
41. Testa R, Guerra E, Bonfigli AR, Di Gaetano N, Santini G, Ceriotti F. Analytical Performances of an Enzymatic Assay for the Measurement of Glycated Albumin. J Appl Lab Med An AACC Publ. 2016;1(2):162-171. doi:10.1373/jalm.2016.020446
42. Speeckaert M, Van Biesen W, Delanghe J, et al. Are there better alternatives than haemoglobin A1c to estimate glycaemic control in the chronic kidney disease
population? Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014;29(12):2167-2177. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfu006
43. Jhk K, Tps S, Kdd D, Eejg A, Baak van M. Obes Facts 2013;6(Suppl 1):1-246 Abstracts 49 POSTER SESSIONS Adult Body Mass and Common FSNP Variants of BBS Genes Characterizations of the Energy Balance and Circulating Inflammation Makers in a Polygenic Mouse Model of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Genet.;2013.
https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/170 983. Accessed May 29, 2019.
44. Vos FE, Schollum JB, Walker RJ. Glycated albumin is the preferred marker for assessing glycaemic control in advanced chronic kidney disease. Clin Kidney J. 2011;4(6):368-375. doi:10.1093/ndtplus/sfr140
45. Kato A, Kunimatsu T, Yamashita Y, Adachi I, Takeshita K, Ishikawa F. Protective Effects of Dietary 1,5- Anhydro- d -glucitol as a Blood Glucose Regulator in Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. J Agric Food Chem. 2013;61(3):611-617. doi:10.1021/jf304683s
46. Ajjan RA. How Can We Realize the Clinical Benefits of Continuous Glucose Monitoring? Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S2):S27-S36. doi:10.1089/dia.2017.0021
47. Slattery D, Choudhary P. Clinical Use of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S2):S55-S61. doi:10.1089/dia.2017.0051
48. Parrinello CM, Selvin E. Beyond HbA1c and glucose: the role of nontraditional glycemic markers in diabetes diagnosis, prognosis, and management. Curr Diab Rep. 2014;14(11):548. doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0548-3
49. Krhač M, Lovrenčić MV. Update on biomarkers of glycemic control. World J Diabetes. 2019;10(1):1-15. doi:10.4239/wjd.v10.i1.1
50. Parrinello CM, Selvin E. Beyond HbA1c and Glucose: the Role of Nontraditional Glycemic Markers in Diabetes Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Management. Curr Diab Rep. 2014;14(11):548. doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0548-3
51. Musenge EM, Michelo C, Mudenda B, Manankov A. Glycaemic Control and Associated Self-Management Behaviours in Diabetic Outpatients: A Hospital Based Observation Study in Lusaka, Zambia. J Diabetes Res. 2016;2016:1-9. doi:10.1155/2016/7934654
52. Koga M. 1,5-Anhydroglucitol and glycated albumin in glycemia. Adv Clin Chem. 2014;64:269-301. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24938022. Accessed May 29, 2019.
53. Vos FE, Schollum JB, Walker RJ. Glycated albumin is the preferred marker for assessing glycaemic control in advanced chronic kidney disease. NDT Plus. 2011;4(6):368-375. doi:10.1093/ndtplus/sfr140
54. Desouza C V, Rosenstock J, Zhou R, Holcomb RG, Fonseca VA. GLYCATED ALBUMIN AT 4 WEEKS CORRELATES WITH A1C LEVELS AT 12 WEEKS AND REFLECTS
SHORT-TERM GLUCOSE FLUCTUATIONS. Endocr Pract. 2015;21(11):1195-1203. doi:10.4158/EP14570.OR
55. Zheng C-M, Ma W-Y, Wu C-C, Lu KC. Glycated albumin in diabetic patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Chim Acta. 2012;413(19-20):1555-1561. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2012.04.025
56. Sarkar M, Rajta PN, Khatana J. Anemia in Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Prevalence, pathogenesis, and potential impact. Lung India. 2015;32(2):142-151. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.152626
2. Monnier L, Colette C, Owens DR. Integrating glycaemic variability in the glycaemic disorders of type 2 diabetes: a move towards a unified glucose tetrad concept. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2009;25(5):393-402. doi:10.1002/dmrr.962
3. Keen H, Ng Tang Fui S. 1 The definition and classification of diabetes mellitus. Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982;11(2):279-305. doi:10.1016/S0300-595X(82)80017-0
4. Clarke SF, Foster JR. A history of blood glucose meters and their role in selfmonitoring of diabetes mellitus. Br J Biomed Sci. 2012;69(2):83-93. doi:10.1080/09674845.2012.12002443
5. Yoo E-H, Lee S-Y, Yoo E-H, Lee S-Y. Glucose Biosensors: An Overview of Use in Clinical Practice. Sensors. 2010;10(5):4558-4576. doi:10.3390/s100504558
6. Makris K, Spanou L. Is there a relationship between mean blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin? J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2011;5(6):1572- 1583. doi:10.1177/193229681100500634
7. Gabbay KH, Hasty K, Breslow JL, Ellison RC, Bunn HF, Gallop PM. Glycosylated Hemoglobins and LongTerm Blood Glucose Control in Diabetes Mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1977;44(5):859-864. doi:10.1210/jcem-44-5-859
8. Radin MS. Pitfalls in hemoglobin A1c measurement: when results may be misleading. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29(2):388-394. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2595-x
9. Lorenzo-Medina M, De-La-Iglesia S, Ropero P, Nogueira-Salgueiro P, Santana-Benitez J. Effects of hemoglobin variants on hemoglobin a1c values measured using a highperformance liquid chromatography method. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2014;8(6):1168-1176. doi:10.1177/1932296814538774
10. León-Triana O, Calvo GF, BelmonteBeitia J, et al. Labile hemoglobin as a glycaemic biomarker for patient-specific monitoring of diabetes: a mathematical modeling approach. J R Soc Interface. 2018;15(142). doi:10.1098/rsif.2018.0224
11. Sherwani SI, Khan HA, Ekhzaimy A, Masood A, Sakharkar MK. Significance of HbA1c Test in Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diabetic Patients. Biomark Insights. 2016;11:95. doi:10.4137/BMI.S38440
12. Bonora E, Tuomilehto J. The pros and cons of diagnosing diabetes with A1C. Diabetes Care. 2011;34 Suppl 2(Supplement 2):S184-90. doi:10.2337/dc11-s216
13. Bonora E, Tuomilehto J. The pros and cons of diagnosing diabetes with A1C. Diabetes Care. 2011;34 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):S184-90. doi:10.2337/dc11-s216
14. Ketema EB, Kibret KT. Correlation of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose with HbA1c in assessing glycemic control; systematic review and metaanalysis. Arch Public Heal. 2015;73:43. doi:10.1186/S13690-015-0088-6
15. American Diabetes Association AD. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2009;32 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S62-7. doi:10.2337/dc09-S062
16. Hu Y, Liu W, Chen Y, et al. Combined use of fasting plasma glucose and glycated hemoglobin A1c in the screening of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Acta Diabetol. 2010;47(3):231-236. doi:10.1007/s00592-009-0143-2
17. Cohen RM, Haggerty S, Herman WH. HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes and prediabetes: is it time for a mid-course correction? J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2010;95(12):5203-5206. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2352
18. Karakaya J, Akin S, Karagaoglu E, Gurlek A. The performance of hemoglobin A1c against fasting plasma glucose and oral glucose tolerance test in detecting prediabetes and diabetes. J Res Med Sci. 2014;19(11):1051-1057. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25657750. Accessed May 28, 2019.
19. Kim DL, Kim SD, Kim SK, Park S, Song KH. Is an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Still Valid for Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus? Diabetes Metab J. 2016;40(2):118-128.
doi:10.4093/dmj.2016.40.2.118
20. Maynard JD, Rohrscheib M, Way JF, Nguyen CM, Ediger MN. Noninvasive Type 2 Diabetes Screening: Superior sensitivity to fasting plasma glucose and A1C. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(5):1120-1124. doi:10.2337/dc06-2377
21. Nakagami T, Qiao Q, Tuomilehto J, et al. The fasting plasma glucose cut-point predicting a diabetic 2-h OGTT glucose level depends on the phenotype. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2002;55(1):35-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11755477. Accessed May 28, 2019.
22. Martín-Timón I, Sevillano-Collantes C, Segura-Galindo A, Del Cañizo-Gómez FJ. Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease: Have all risk factors the same
strength? World J Diabetes. 2014;5(4):444-470. doi:10.4239/wjd.v5.i4.444
23. Cheng YJ, Gregg EW, Geiss LS, et al. Association of A1C and fasting plasma glucose levels with diabetic retinopathy prevalence in the U.S. population: Implications for diabetes diagnostic thresholds. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(11):2027-2032. doi:10.2337/dc09-0440
24. American Diabetes Association AD. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2013;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S67-74. doi:10.2337/dc13-S067
25. Weykamp C, John WG, Mosca A. A review of the challenge in measuring hemoglobin A1c. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2009;3(3):439-445. doi:10.1177/193229680900300306
26. Little RR, Rohlfing CL. HbA 1c Standardization: Background, Progress and Current Issues. Lab Med. 2009;40(6):368-373. doi:10.1309/LM3DUSEIBXHTVZ70
27. López-de-Andrés A, Perez-Farinos N, de Miguel-Díez J, et al. Type 2 diabetes and postoperative pneumonia: An observational, population-based study
using the Spanish Hospital Discharge Database, 2001-2015. Patman S, ed. PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0211230. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211230
28. McCormack S, Grant SFA. Genetics of obesity and type 2 diabetes in African Americans. J Obes. 2013;2013:396416. doi:10.1155/2013/396416
29. Davidson MB. Diagnosing diabetes with glucose criteria: worshiping a false God. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(2):524-526. doi:10.2337/dc10-1689
30. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) for the diagnosis of diabetes. 2011. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304271/. Accessed May 28, 2019.
31. Malik J, Masoodi S, Shoib S. Obstructive sleep apnea in Type 2 diabetes and impact of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on glycemic control. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2017;21(1):106. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.196005
32. Coustan DR. Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy. Glob Libr Women’s Med. 2009. doi:10.3843/GLOWM.10162
33. Osei K, Rhinesmith S, Gaillard T, Schuster D. Is Glycosylated Hemoglobin A1c a Surrogate for Metabolic Syndrome in Nondiabetic, First-Degree Relatives of AfricanAmerican Patients with Type 2 Diabetes? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(10):4596-4601. doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030686
34. Ghazanfari Z, Haghdoost AA, Alizadeh SM, Atapour J, Zolala F. A Comparison of HbA1c and Fasting Blood Sugar Tests in General Population. Int J Prev Med. 2010;1(3):187-194. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21566790. Accessed May 28, 2019.
35. McMillin JM. Blood Glucose. Butterworths; 1990. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21250092. Accessed May 28, 2019.
36. Dagogo-Jack S, ed. Diabetes Mellitus in Developing Countries and Underserved Communities. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41559-8
37. Si D, Bailie R, Wang Z, Weeramanthri T. Comparison of diabetes management in five countries for general and indigenous populations: an internetbased review. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:169. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-169
38. Welsh KJ, Kirkman MS, Sacks DB. Role of Glycated Proteins in the Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes: Research Gaps and Future Directions. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(8):1299-1306. doi:10.2337/dc15-2727
39. Danese E, Montagnana M, Nouvenne A, Lippi G. Advantages and pitfalls of fructosamine and glycated albumin in the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes.
J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2015;9(2):169-176. doi:10.1177/1932296814567227
40. Lee J-E. Alternative biomarkers for assessing glycemic control in diabetes: fructosamine, glycated albumin, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2015;20(2):74-78. doi:10.6065/apem.2015.20.2.74
41. Testa R, Guerra E, Bonfigli AR, Di Gaetano N, Santini G, Ceriotti F. Analytical Performances of an Enzymatic Assay for the Measurement of Glycated Albumin. J Appl Lab Med An AACC Publ. 2016;1(2):162-171. doi:10.1373/jalm.2016.020446
42. Speeckaert M, Van Biesen W, Delanghe J, et al. Are there better alternatives than haemoglobin A1c to estimate glycaemic control in the chronic kidney disease
population? Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014;29(12):2167-2177. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfu006
43. Jhk K, Tps S, Kdd D, Eejg A, Baak van M. Obes Facts 2013;6(Suppl 1):1-246 Abstracts 49 POSTER SESSIONS Adult Body Mass and Common FSNP Variants of BBS Genes Characterizations of the Energy Balance and Circulating Inflammation Makers in a Polygenic Mouse Model of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Genet.;2013.
https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/170 983. Accessed May 29, 2019.
44. Vos FE, Schollum JB, Walker RJ. Glycated albumin is the preferred marker for assessing glycaemic control in advanced chronic kidney disease. Clin Kidney J. 2011;4(6):368-375. doi:10.1093/ndtplus/sfr140
45. Kato A, Kunimatsu T, Yamashita Y, Adachi I, Takeshita K, Ishikawa F. Protective Effects of Dietary 1,5- Anhydro- d -glucitol as a Blood Glucose Regulator in Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. J Agric Food Chem. 2013;61(3):611-617. doi:10.1021/jf304683s
46. Ajjan RA. How Can We Realize the Clinical Benefits of Continuous Glucose Monitoring? Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S2):S27-S36. doi:10.1089/dia.2017.0021
47. Slattery D, Choudhary P. Clinical Use of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S2):S55-S61. doi:10.1089/dia.2017.0051
48. Parrinello CM, Selvin E. Beyond HbA1c and glucose: the role of nontraditional glycemic markers in diabetes diagnosis, prognosis, and management. Curr Diab Rep. 2014;14(11):548. doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0548-3
49. Krhač M, Lovrenčić MV. Update on biomarkers of glycemic control. World J Diabetes. 2019;10(1):1-15. doi:10.4239/wjd.v10.i1.1
50. Parrinello CM, Selvin E. Beyond HbA1c and Glucose: the Role of Nontraditional Glycemic Markers in Diabetes Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Management. Curr Diab Rep. 2014;14(11):548. doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0548-3
51. Musenge EM, Michelo C, Mudenda B, Manankov A. Glycaemic Control and Associated Self-Management Behaviours in Diabetic Outpatients: A Hospital Based Observation Study in Lusaka, Zambia. J Diabetes Res. 2016;2016:1-9. doi:10.1155/2016/7934654
52. Koga M. 1,5-Anhydroglucitol and glycated albumin in glycemia. Adv Clin Chem. 2014;64:269-301. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24938022. Accessed May 29, 2019.
53. Vos FE, Schollum JB, Walker RJ. Glycated albumin is the preferred marker for assessing glycaemic control in advanced chronic kidney disease. NDT Plus. 2011;4(6):368-375. doi:10.1093/ndtplus/sfr140
54. Desouza C V, Rosenstock J, Zhou R, Holcomb RG, Fonseca VA. GLYCATED ALBUMIN AT 4 WEEKS CORRELATES WITH A1C LEVELS AT 12 WEEKS AND REFLECTS
SHORT-TERM GLUCOSE FLUCTUATIONS. Endocr Pract. 2015;21(11):1195-1203. doi:10.4158/EP14570.OR
55. Zheng C-M, Ma W-Y, Wu C-C, Lu KC. Glycated albumin in diabetic patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Chim Acta. 2012;413(19-20):1555-1561. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2012.04.025
56. Sarkar M, Rajta PN, Khatana J. Anemia in Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Prevalence, pathogenesis, and potential impact. Lung India. 2015;32(2):142-151. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.152626
How to Cite
1.
Dr. Vipul Gupta, Dr. Girish Khurana. NEW GLYCAEMIC TARGETS- TIME TO LOOK BEYOND HBA1C: A REVIEW. Med. res. chronicles [Internet]. 2019Jun.30 [cited 2024Dec.26];6(3):146-54. Available from: https://medrech.com/index.php/medrech/article/view/383
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